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E Mail Writing in English

E Mail Writing in English: Email is the most common form of business communication; so it’s important to get it right. Although emails usually aren’t as formal as letters, they still need to be professional to present a good image of you and your company.

How to write a formal email

Follow these five simple steps to make sure your English emails are perfectly professional.
  1. Begin with a greeting
  2. Thank the recipient
  3. State your purpose
  4. Add your closing remarks
  5. End with a closing
E Mail Writing in English

Begin with a greeting

Always open your email with a greeting, such as “Dear Lillian”. If your relationship with the reader is formal, use their family name (eg. “Dear Mrs. Price”). If the relationship is more casual, you can simply say, “Hi Kelly”. If you don’t know the name of the person you are writing to, use: “To whom it may concern” or “Dear Sir/Madam”. Subject Line
  1. Always have a subject line that summarises briefly and clearly the contents of the message (example: Re:                      Summary of Our Meeting with ABC Suppliers). There are many variations of greetings that you can start your email with, but the most standard ones are:            Dear Firstname Lastname            Dear Mr./Ms. Lastname            Dear Mr./Ms. Firstname Lastname            Dear Dr. Lastname            To whom it may concern
         It is always important to have a contact name, unless a recipient is unknown ( in “to whom it may concern” case). If needed, don’t be shy to call and ask for the person’s name. Some people use informal salutations, such as “Good morning” or “Hi“. It totally depends on how formal your relationships are.  
  1. Think of who your reader is going to be

    Is it a colleague, a client or your boss? Should the email be informal or formal? Most business emails these days have a neutral tone. Note the difference between Informal and Formal: Informal – Thanks for emailing me on 15th February Formal – Thank you for your email dated 15th February Informal – Sorry, I can’t make it. Formal – I am afraid I will not be able to attend Informal – Can you…? Formal – I was wondering if you could….?
  1. Some emails to colleagues can be informal if you have a long working relationship and know them well. This is the style that is closest to speech, so there are often everyday words and conversational expressions that can be used. For instance, ‘Don’t forget’‘Catch you later’‘Cheers’. The reader may also accept or overlook minor grammatical errors in informal emails. However, if the email is going to a client or senior colleague, bad grammar and an over-friendly writing style will most probably not be acceptable. If you are replying to a client’s inquiry, you should begin with a line of thanks. For example, if someone has a question about your company, you can say, “Thank you for contacting ABC Company”. If someone has replied to one of your emails, be sure to say, “Thank you for your prompt reply” or “Thanks for getting back to me”. Thanking the reader puts him or her at ease, and it will make you appear more polite.
  2. Think about how direct or indirect you want to be

    In some cultures, it is common practice to be very direct in email correspondence. However, this can cause a problem if you’re writing to someone in another country and in a language that is not your mother tongue. They might find your directness rude and possibly offensive. Consider these: Direct – I need this in half an hour. Indirect and polite – Would it be possible to have this in half an hour? Direct – There will be a delay Indirect – I’m afraid there may be a slight delay. Direct – It’s a bad idea Indirect – To be honest, I’m not sure if that would be a good idea. By adjusting your tone, you are more likely to get a positive response from your reader.

    State your purpose

    If you are starting the email communication, it may be impossible to include a line of thanks. Instead, begin by stating your purpose. For example, “I am writing to enquire about …” or “I am writing in reference to …”. Make your purpose clear early on in the email, and then move into the main text of your email. Remember, people want to read emails quickly, so keep your sentences short and clear. You’ll also need to pay careful attention to grammar, spelling and punctuation so that you present a professional image of yourself and your company.
  3. Add your closing remarks

    Before you end your email, it’s polite to thank your reader one more time and add some polite closing remarks. You might start with “Thank you for your patience and cooperation” or “Thank you for your consideration” and then follow up with, “If you have any questions or concerns, don’t hesitate to let me know” and “I look forward to hearing from you”.
  1. End with a closing

    The last step is to include an appropriate closing with your name. “Best regards”“Sincerely”, and “Thank you” are all professional. Avoid closings such as “Best wishes” or “Cheers” unless you are good friends with the reader. Finally, before you hit the send button, review and spell check your email one more time to make sure it’s truly perfect!

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IELTS Training: Using Collocations to Boost Your IELTS Score

Collocations to increase world power for IELTS writing test.

It is noticed that IELTS learners often face difficulties when it comes to collocations which can be defined as the natural combination of words or the correct arrangement of words in a sentence. With regard to the IELTS Writing Task 2, IELTS test takers should make the most of collocations to ace the IELTS Writing test. This means IELTS learners shouldn’t learn individual words by themselves and should focus on what other words they are used with.  The very first article about collocations on this website will equip you with 20 useful collocations to build up your vocabulary & maximize your IELTS score. It is widely acknowledged that collocations play an important role in second language learning, particularly at the intermediate and advanced levels. Collocations enhance improvement of learners’ oral communication, listening comprehension, and reading speed, and that teaching collocation enables learners to be aware of language chunks used by native speakers in speech and writing. Here are 20 collocations that you can use to improve your essay in IELTS Writing Task 2 1-To play/have a(n) important/key/vital/crucial role in (doing) sth:  to play an important part in sth
  • University education plays a crucial role in improving the quality of human workforce.
2-To make significant/substantial/valuable/ great/outstanding contribution to sth
  • The medical advances have made outstanding contributions to the public’s health care.
3-To solve the problem
  • Whoever created this problem should solve it.
4-To be key factors influencing something
  • The number of the vehicles used is the key factors influencing pollution.
5-To reap the benefits (of sth) – gain benefit from something/ make the most of something
  • The customers reap the benefits of globalization.
6- To be a contributing factor:  to be one of the main causes of sth
  • The vaccination program has been a contributing factor in the improvement of health standards.
7-To contribute to sth
  • Alcohol contributes to 100,000 deaths a year in the US.
8-To gain/derive benefit (from sth)
  • Many students derived enormous benefit from the course.
9-To have a right to do sth = to be entitled to do sth
  • Everyone should have the right to freedom of expression.
  • Full-time employees are entitled to receive health insurance.
10-To benefit greatly/enormously/considerably … from sth
  • Many thousands have benefited considerably from the new treatment.
11-To have/enjoy/achieve a huge/great success in doing sth
  • We want all our students to achieve a huge success in the exam
12- To launch a full-scale investigation into sth
  • The authorities are planning to launch a full-scale investigation into the crash.
13- To meet the need of/demand
  • The charity exists to meet the needs of elderly people.
14-To fulfil a role/duty/function/ an aim/a goal/an objective/dream/ambition/hope
  • Visiting Disneyland has fulfilled a boyhood dream.
15-To fulfil a requirement/condition/obligation
  • Britain was accused of failing to fulfill its obligation under the EU Treaty.
16-To fulfil a promise/pledge = to keep a promise
  • I’d like to see him fulfill his promise to reorganize the army.
17-To satisfy sb’s needs/demands/desires/requirements
  • The program is designed to satisfy the needs of adult learners.
18-To have/gain knowledge/understanding of sth
  • The need to gain knowledge about birth control.
19- To have/make common cause (with/against)
  • S officials expect other Western governments to make common cause with them over the arrests.
20- To cause somebody to do something
  • What caused you to change your mind ?

Using Collocations to Boost Your IELTS Score

The correct use of collocations is an essential part of improving your English level and boosting your IELTS score. Using collocations correctly allows you to write and speak more like a native speaker and they are also one of the things that examiners look out for when marking your tests. Learning new words as part of a collocation is a much more effective way of improving our vocabulary than simply learning single words by themselves. Collocations are two or more words that naturally go together. They sound ‘correct’ to a native speaker. Using other combinations that do not form natural collocations might sound ‘incorrect’.

Examples

We could describe a night out as ‘great fun’, but we would not describe it as ‘big fun’. Similarly, we could describe the rain as being ‘heavy’, but we would not say that it is ‘weighty’ or ‘big’ rain. There are many different types of collocations that you should be aware of. Below are the main ones and some examples. Please note that this is not a list of collocations that you should use in your test, just some examples to help you understand what collocations are.

Adverb + Adjective

It’s vitally important to learn collocations.

Using Collocations to Boost Your IELTS Score

The correct use of collocations is an essential part of improving your English level and boosting your IELTS score. Using collocations correctly allows you to write and speak more like a native speaker and they are also one of the things that examiners look out for when marking your tests. Learning new words as part of a collocation is a much more effective way of improving our vocabulary than simply learning single words by themselves. Collocations are two or more words that naturally go together. They sound ‘correct’ to a native speaker. Using other combinations that do not form natural collocations might sound ‘incorrect’.

Examples

We could describe a night out as ‘great fun’, but we would not describe it as ‘big fun’. Similarly, we could describe the rain as being ‘heavy’, but we would not say that it is ‘weighty’ or ‘big’ rain. There are many different types of collocations that you should be aware of. Below are the main ones and some examples. Please note that this is not a list of collocations that you should use in your test, just some examples to help you understand what collocations are.

Adverb + Adjective

It’s vitally important to learn collocations. I’m terribly sorry to bother you. The baby was fast asleep. It would be utterly stupid not to learn collocations. I’m completely satisfied with his explanation. Note that the adverb can often be replaced with the simpler words ‘very’ or ‘really’. Try to avoid these and use a more advanced collocation, like the ones above.

Adjective + Noun

There’s been heavy rain all day in Ireland. There’s  a strong chance I’ll get a high score. I’m under severe pressure to get the job finished this week. It’s been a hard day at the office. The patient was in excruciating pain when they arrived.

Noun + Noun

I experience a surge of anger when I saw what he’d done. We gave her a round of applause after the speech. I normally just drink a pint of beer when I go out.

Noun + Verb

A lion roars, they do not shout. The children played as the snow began to fall. The price of heating oil falls as temperatures rise.

Verb + Noun

Will someone please answer the phone? Click on the link below to send me an email. You can arrange an appointment with the doctor online.

How Can Collocations Improve My IELTS Score?

IELTS examiners will be listening out for effective use of collocations when you are doing your speaking test. They will also look for good use of them in your writing test. In short, appropriate and accurate use of them will help boost your score. Does that mean that you should learn a long list of them? NO! Instead, you should make collocations part of your vocabulary building process. When you learn a new word, you should find out which words it collocates with. A quick Google search will help you find all the main collocations easily. You can then write down example sentences containing the collocations. This will help you remember the word more effectively, so you will be broadening your vocabulary and this will help you in all parts of the test.

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Introducing and Greeting People in English

Introducing and Greeting People in English

Greeting People
Hello. / Hi.
Good morning.
Good morning. (until 12 o’clock) / Good afternoon.
Good evening [ˈiːv(ə)nɪŋ].
Introducing People
What’s your name?
My name is …
I am …
Haven’t we met (before)?
Yes, I think we have.
No, I don’t think we have.
I think we’ve already met.
I don’t think we’ve met (before).
This is …
Meet …
Have you met …?
Yes, I have.
No, I haven’t.
Yes, I think I have.
No, I don’t think I have.
Hello, … (name)
Nice to meet you. (informal)
Pleased to meet you.
How do you do? (formal)
Nice to see you.
Nice to see you again.
Say Goodbye
(It was) nice meeting you.
Good bye.
Bye. / See you.
See you later.
See you soon.
See you tomorrow.
See you next week.
Good night.
Health
How are you?
How are you today?
Fine, thank you/thanks.
Not too bad.
Very well.
I’m okay / all right.
Not too well, actually.
What’s wrong with you?
What’s the matter with you?
Are you all right?
I’m tired [tʌɪəd].
I’m exhausted [ɪgˈzɔːstɪd].
I’ve got a cold.
Introducing and Greeting People in English
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Business English: Agreeing and Disagreeing In English

Agreeing and Disagreeing

Agreement
There are many reasons for …
There is no doubt about it that …
I simply must agree with that.
I am of the same opinion.
I am of the same opinion as …
I completely/absolutely agree with …
Qualified Disagreement
It is only partly true that…
I can agree with that only with reservations.
That seems obvious, but …
That is not necessarily so.
It is not as simple as it seems.
Under certain circumstances …
Disagreement
There is more to it than that.
The problem is that …
I (very much) doubt whether …
This is in complete contradiction to …
What is even worse, …
I am of a different opinion because …
I cannot share this / that / the view.
I cannot agree with this idea.
What I object to is …
Unlike … I think …
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Business English: Opinions and Statements

Opinions and Statements

Stating your Opinion
It seems to me that …
In my opinion, …
I am of the opinion that …/ I take the view that ..
My personal view is that …
In my experience …
As far as I understand / can see, …
As I see it, … / From my point of view …
As far as I know … / From what I know …
I might be wrong but …
If I am not mistaken …
I believe one can (safely) say  …
It is claimed that …
I must admit that …
I cannot deny that …
I can imagine that …
I think/believe/suppose …
Personally, I think …
That is why I think …
I am sure/certain/convinced that …
I am not sure/certain, but …
I am not sure, because I don’t know the situation exactly.
I am not convinced that …
I have read that …
I am of mixed opinions (about / on) …
I am of mixed opinions about / on this.
I have no opinion in this matter.
Outlining Facts
The fact is that
The (main) point is that …
This proves that …
What it comes down to is that …
It is obvious that …
It is certain that …
One can say that …
It is clear that …
There is no doubt that …
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Business English: Linking Arguements

Word List on Linking Arguments

Linking Arguments
First of all, I think …
Not only that, but I also think that …
Not only are they …, they are also …
They are not …, nor are they …
There are various/several/many reasons for this.
First, … / Firstly, …
Second, … / Secondly, …
Moreover, … / Furthermore, … / In addition, …
Another significant point is that …
Finally, …
On the one hand, … On the other hand, …
In contrast to this is …
Because of …
That is why …
After all, …
The reason is that …
In that respect …
The result of this is that …
Another aspect/point is that …
It is because …
Although it is true that … it would be wrong to claim that …
That may sometimes be true, but …
One could argue that …, but …
Providing Examples
Take for example (the case of) …
Look at …
For instance … / For example …
Let me give you an example.
Additions and Conclusion
Most probably …
It appears to be …
It is important to mention that…
As I already indicated …
In other words, …
I am most concerned about …
I should like to repeat once again that …
I should like to emphasise that …
I would (just) like to add …
So all in all I believe that…
(In) summing up it can be said that …
Weighing the pros and cons, I come to the conclusion that …
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Prepositions in English

Prepositions in English

Prepositions in English

Definition

  • preposition is a word or set of words that indicates location (in, near, beside, on top of) or some other relationship between a noun or pronoun and other parts of the sentence (about, after, besides, instead of, in accordance with). A preposition isn’t a preposition unless it goes with a related noun or pronoun, called the object of the preposition.

Examples: Let’s meet before noon. Before is a preposition; noon is its object.

We’ve never met before. There is no object; before is an adverb modifying met.

Prepositions: uses

We commonly use prepositions to show a relationship in space or time or a logical relationship between two or more people, places or things. Prepositions are most commonly followed by a noun phrase or pronoun (underlined):

The last time I saw him he was walking down the road.

I’ll meet you in the cafe opposite the cinema.

It was difficult to sleep during the flight.

It was the worst storm since the 1980s.

Give that to me.

There are over 100 prepositions in English. The most common single-word prepositions are:

about

beside

near

to

above

between

of

towards

across

beyond

off

under

after

by

on

underneath

against

despite

onto

unlike

along

down

opposite

until

among

during

out

up

around

except

outside

upon

as

for

over

via

at

from

past

with

before

in

round

within

behind

inside

since

without

below

into

than

beneath

like

through

Although most prepositions are single words, some pairs and groups of words operate like single prepositions:

They were unable to attend because of the bad weather in Ireland.

Jack’ll be playing in the team in place of me.

In addition to getting a large fine, both brothers were put in prison for three months.

I always get nervous when I have to speak in front of an audience.

We estimate that there’ll be up to 10,000 people at the concert.

The most common prepositions that consist of groups of words are:

ahead of

except for

instead of

owing to

apart from

in addition to

near to

such as

as for

in front of

on account of

thanks to

as well as

in place of

on top of

up to

because of

in spite of

out of

due to

inside of

outside of

Prepositions or conjunctions?

Some words which are prepositions also function as conjunctions. When we use a preposition that is followed by a clause, it is functioning as a conjunction; when we use a preposition that is followed by a noun phrase, it stays as a preposition. Among the most common are after, as, before, since, until:

After I’d met him last night, I texted his sister at once. (conjunction)

After the meeting last night, I texted his sister at once. (preposition)

We’ll just have to wait until they decide what to do. (conjunction)

Okay, we’ll wait here until six o’clock. (preposition)

Prepositions or adverbs?

Several words which are prepositions also belong to the word class of adverbs. These include: about, across, around, before, beyond, in, inside, near, opposite, outside, past, round, through, under, up, within:

There were lots of people waiting for a taxi outside the club. (preposition)

A:

Where’s your cat?

B:

She’s outside. (adverb)

The gallery is opposite the Natural History Museum. (preposition)

A:

Can you tell me where the bus station is?

B:

It’s over there, just opposite. (adverb)

Prepositions and abstract meanings

Common prepositions that show relationships of space often have abstract as well as concrete meanings.

Compare

That map you need is behindthe filing cabinet. (basic spatial sense or position)

Everyone is behind the government. (behind = gives support)

Beyond the hotel were beautiful mountains. (basic spatial sense or position)

Learning Chinese in a year was beyond them all. (beyond = too difficult for)

Some common prepositions such as at, in and on can have abstract meanings:

I think you will both need to discuss the problem in private.

All three singers were dressed in black.

You now have the next day at leisure and can do whatever you wish.

Our dog stays on guard all night, even when he’s sleeping!

Prepositions and adjectives

We commonly use prepositions after adjectives. Here are the most common adjective + preposition patterns.

adjectives

preposition

aware, full

of

They weren’t aware of the time.

different, separate

from

Is French very different from Spanish?

due, similar

to

This picture is similar to the one in our living room.

familiar, wrong

with

What’s wrong with Isabelle?

good, surprised*

at

We were really surprised at the price of food in restaurants on our holiday.

interested

in

Lots of people are interested in Grand Prix racing but I’m not.

responsible, good

for

Exercise is good for everyone.

worried, excited

about

We’re really excited about our trip to Argentina.

*We can also say surprised by

Prepositions and nouns

Many nouns have particular prepositions which normally follow them:

There’s been a large increase in the price of petrol.

Does anyone know the cause of the fire?

Prepositions and verbs

Many verbs go together with prepositions to make prepositional verbs. These always have an object:

I just couldn’t do without my phone.

Robert accused her of stealing his idea.

Phrasal-prepositional verbs contain a verb, an adverb particle and a preposition (underlined). We cannot separate the particle and the preposition:

The taxi is due any minute. Can you listen out for it?

I can’t put up with this noise any longer.

Prepositions: position and stranding

Traditional grammatical rules say that we should not have a preposition at the end of a clause or sentence. However, we sometimes do separate a preposition from the words which follow it (its complement). This is called preposition stranding, and it is common in informal styles:

She was someone to whom he could talk. (formal)

She was someone who he could talk to. (informal)

Which room are they having breakfast in? (informal)

In which room are they having breakfast? (formal)

If we leave out words that are clear from the context (ellipsis), we can use wh-questions with a wh-word + stranded preposition:

A:

The office is moving next year.

B:

Really, where to?

A:

I’m going to buy some flowers online.

B:

Who for?

A:

My mother.

Prepositions

How can we use these little words correctly?

Prepositions are used in many different ways in English – perhaps that’s why a lot of people have problems with them. First, they are used with time words:
  • on Monday
  • in the 20th century
  • at night
Second, they are used to show where something or someone is:
  • The plate is on the table.
  • Julie is in the garden.
  • The picture is on the wall.
Third, they are used after some adjectives:
  • She is good at tennis.
  • Scotland is famous for whisky
  • I’m worried about my new job.
Fourth, they are used after some verbs:
  • I’m listening to music.
  • She is waiting for her friend.
  • He borrows money from his sister.
Fifth, they are used after some nouns:
  • She has trouble with remembering new vocabulary.
Finally, they are used in certain phrases:
  • The bus arrived in the end.
  • She arrived just in time for the film.

Prepositions of Time

In, at, on and no preposition with time words:

Prepositions of time – here’s a list of the time words that need ‘on’, ‘in’, ‘at’ and some that don’t need any preposition. Be careful – many students of English use ‘on’ with months (it should be ‘in’), or put a preposition before ‘next’ when we don’t need one.
at
  • times: at 8pm, at midnight, at 6:30
  • holiday periods: at Christmas, at Easter
  • at night
  • at the weekend
  • at lunchtime, at dinnertime, at breakfast time
on
  • days: on Monday, on my birthday, on Christmas Day
  • days + morning / afternoon / evening / night: on Tuesday morning
  • dates: on the 20th of June
in
  • years: in 1992, in 2006
  • months: in December, in June
  • decades: in the sixties, in the 1790s
  • centuries: in the 19th century
  • seasons: in winter, in summer
  • in the morning, in the afternoon, in the evening
no prep
  • next week, year, month etc
  • last night, year etc
  • this morning, month etc
  • every day, night, years etc
  • today, tomorrow, yesterday

Prepositions of Place

Prepositions of place can be difficult – here’s some help about using ‘at’, ‘in’ and ‘on’ when you’re talking about where things are.

Basics:

If something is contained inside a box or a wide flat area, we use ‘in’:
in the newspaper in a house
in a cup in a drawer
in a bottle in a bag
in bed in a car
in London in England
in a book in a pub
in a field in the sea
in my stomach in a river
If something is on a line or a horizontal or vertical surface, we use ‘on’:
on the table on the wall
on the floor on the window
on my face on a plate
on the page on the sofa
on a chair on a bag
on the river on a t-shirt
on the ceiling on a bottle
on a bike on his foo
If something is at a point, (it could be a building) we use ‘at’:
at the airport at the door
at the table at the bus stop
at the cinema at the top
at the bottom at the pub
at the traffic lights at the front
at the back at school
at university at the window
at the hospital at the piano
Here are some more common ones that don’t really fit:
  • on TV
  • on the bus
  • on a train
  • on a plane
  • on the radio
  • at home
  • at work

Adjectives and Prepositions

Some adjectives need a preposition before their object. There doesn’t seem to be a logical rule, I’m afraid! We just need to learn them. Here are some of the most common ones:
  • famous for France is famous for its food.
  • proud of He is very proud of his new car.
  • interested in Julie is very interested in sport.
  • pleased with John is very pleased with his new suit.
  • bad at They are very bad at maths.
  • good at Einstein was very good at physics.
  • married to My mother has been married to my father for 20 years.
  • excited about I’m very excited about my holiday.
  • different from / to Coffee is different from tea.
  • afraid of I’m afraid of spiders.
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Use of Articles in English

Use of Articles in English

Articles

A, an, and the: how to use articles in English Many learners of English have problems with articles (the words a, an and the), especially when they don’t exist in their own language.

The number one rule is this: if a word is countable (e.g. one book, two books), you must always use an article (or my, his,etc.): I read a book. √ I read book. This is true even if there are adjectives before the noun: He drives an old car. √ He drives old car. Never use or an with a word that is plural (e.g. books, trees) or uncountable (e.g. water, advice): I asked her for advice. √ I asked her for an advice. Note that we use a in front of words that start with a consonant sound (a horse, a carrot) and an in front of words with a vowel sound (an apple, an elephant). The next most important thing to understand is the difference between a/an and the. Basically, we use a/an when we don’t need to say which thing we are talking about. We use the to talk about a specific thing: I caught a train to London. (it doesn’t matter which train) The train was late. (that particular train was late) We often use when we mention something for the first time, and then change to the when it is clear which thing we are talking about: He was talking to a manThe man was laughing. She gave him a presentThe present was very expensive. We also use the when it is obvious which thing we are talking about or when there is only one of something: Could you shut the door, please? I cleaned the bathroom this morning. He travelled around the world. The sun is hot today. If you stick to the rules above, you will be correct in almost all cases. However, there are a few exceptions, and the following are the most useful ones to learn: We don’t use a/an before the names of meals: We had lunch at noon. We don’t use a/an before words like school, prison, or college when we are talking about them in a general way: I hope to go to college. He spent three years in prison. With the word ‘hospital’, there is a difference between British and American English: My brother’s in hospital (UK) / in the hospital (US). We use the before the names of shops or places where we go for services when they are the ones we usually go to: I need to go to the supermarket. She went to the doctor’s.
The 3 articles in English are aan and the. The learner has to decide noun-by-noun which one of the articles to use*. In fact, there are 4 choices to make, because sometimes no article is necessary. Native-speakers, of course, use the articles correctly without thinking in everyday spoken language. English learners, on the other hand, need to have some guidelines for making the right choice – particularly those learners whose own language does not have articles, such as Japanese or Korean. The guidelines that follow here should help ESL students to a basic understanding of English article use. The most important first step in choosing the correct article is to categorize the noun as count or uncount in its context**: – A count noun is a noun that can have a number in front of it: 1 teacher, 3 books, 76 trombones, 1,000,000 people. – An uncount noun is a noun that cannot have a number put in front of it: 1 water2 lucks10 airs21 oils39 informations. Once you have correctly categorized the noun (using your dictionary if necessary), the following “rules” apply: Uncount nouns
  • You cannot say a/an with an uncount noun.
  • You cannot put a number in front of an uncount noun. (You cannot make an uncount noun plural.)
  • You use an uncount noun with no article if you mean that thing in general.
  • You use the with an uncount noun when you are talking about a particular example of that thing.
Count nouns
  • You can put a number in front of a count noun. (You can make a count noun plural.)
  • You can put both a/an and the in front of a count noun.
  • You must put an article in front of a singular count noun.
  • You use a plural count noun with no article if you mean all or any of that thing.
  • You usually use a/an with a count noun the first time you say or write that noun.
  • You use the with count nouns:
    • the second and subsequent times you use the noun in a piece of speech or writing
    • when the listener knows what you are referring to (maybe because there is only one of that thing)
  • You use an (not a) when the next word (adverb, adjective, noun) starts with a vowel sound.
Note:
        • The above rules apply whether there is or there is not an adjective in front of the noun.
        • Some nouns can be either count or uncount, depending on the context and meaning:
          • Do you have paper? I want to draw a picture. (uncount = a sheet of paper)
          • Can you get me a paper when you�re at the shop? (count = a newspaper)
        • Uncount nouns are often preceded by phrases such as: a lot of .. (luck)a piece of .. (cake)a bottle of .. (milk)a grain of .. (rice).
* Instead of an article, the noun can also be preceded by a determiner such as this, that, some, many
       or
my, his, our
    , etc.

Following are some of the most important guidelines listed above, with example sentences:
1. You use an uncount noun with no article if you mean all or any of that thing.
  • I need help!
  • I don’t eat cheese.
  • Do you like music?
2. You use the with an uncount noun when you are talking about a particular example of that thing.
  • Thanks for the help you gave me yesterday.
  • I didn’t eat the cheese. It was green!
  • Did you like the music they played at the dance?
3. You usually use a/an with a count noun the first time you say or write that noun.
  • Can I borrow a pencil, please?
  • There’s a cat in the garden!
  • Do you have an mp3 player?
4. You use the with count nouns the second and subsequent times you use the noun, or when the listener already knows what you are referring to (maybe because there is only one of that thing).
  • Where’s the pencil I lent you yesterday?
  • I think the cat belongs to the new neighbours.
  • I dropped the mp3 player and it broke.
  • Please shut the door!
5. You use a plural count noun with no article if you mean all or any of that thing.
  • I don’t like dogs.
  • Do they have children?
  • I don’t need questions. Give me answers!
6. The above rules apply whether there is or there is not an adjective in front of the noun.
  • I don’t eat German cheese.
  • Can I borrow a red pencil, please?
  • There’s an extremely large cat in the garden!
  • I don’t like small, noisy children.
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Degrees of Comparison in English

Degrees of Comparison in English

Read the following sentences:
  1. John is tall.
  2. Peter is taller than John.
  3. Harry is the tallest of the three.
In sentence 1, the adjective tall merely says something about John’s height. It doesn’t state how tall John is. In sentence 2, the adjective taller is used to compare John’s height with Peter’s height. In sentence 3, the adjective tallest is used to compare Harry’s height with the height of John and Peter. We have thus seen that adjectives change in form to show comparison. These different forms of the adjective are called the degrees of comparison. In the examples given above, the adjective tall is said to be in the positive degree. The adjective taller is said to be in the comparative degree and the adjective tallest is said to be in the superlative degree. The positive degree of an adjective is the adjective in its simple form. It is used to denote the mere existence of some quality. Adjectives in the positive degree are used when no comparison is made. The comparative degree of an adjective shows a higher degree of the quality than that is present in the positive degree. It is used when two things or two sets of things are compared.
  • Peter is smarter than John.
  • Which of the two sisters is the prettier?
  • Apples are dearer than oranges.
The superlative degree of an adjective denotes the highest degree of the quality. It is used when more than two things or sets of things are compared.
  • Peter is the smartest boy in the class.
  • Iron is the most useful of all metals.
  • Alice is the prettiest girl in the neighborhood.
Comparison can be made using the three forms of the adjective. Adjective is a word and it qualifies a noun. It gives more information about the noun. eg. The lion is a strong animal. Rita is a beautiful girl. Adjectives are of three degrees. (1) Positive (2) Comparative (3) Superlative eg. David is a rich man. eg. Cancel is more dreadful than cholera. eg. Mount Everest is the highest peak in the world. Study the following models.
Positive Comparative Superlative
Very few boys in the class are as tall as John. John is taller than any other boys in the class. John is the tallest boy in the class.
John is taller than most other boys in the class. John is one of the tallest boy in the class.
Adjective and Adverbs have three degrees, Positive, Comparative and Superlative. The Pasitive Degree is used to denote the mere existence of quality.

The Positive Degree of an adjective in comparison is the adjective in its simple form. It is used to denote the mere existence of some quality of what we speak about. It is used when no comparison is made.

  • It is a tall building.
  • Apple is sweet to taste.
The Comparative Degree is used to compare the qualities of two persons or things.

The Comparative Degree denotes the existence of a higher degree of the quality than the positive. It is used when two things (or two sets of things) are compared.

  • This building is taller than any other building.
  • Apple is sweeter than pear.

The Superlative Degree denotes the existence of the highest degree of the quality. It is used when more than two things are compared.

  • This is the tallest building.
  • Apple is the sweetest fruit.
The Superlative Degree is used when more than two nouns or things are compared.
  • Johnsy is kind (Positive Degree)
  • Johnsy is kinder than Rosy (Comparative Degree)
  • Johnsy is the kindest of all (Superlative Degree)
By adding ‘er’ and ‘est’
POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE
bright brighter brightest
black blacker blackest
bold bolder boldest
clever cleverer cleverest
cold colder coldest
fast faster fastest
great greater greatest
high higher highest
kind kinder kindest
long longer longest
small smaller smallest
strong stronger strongest
sweet sweeter sweetest
tall taller tallest
young younger youngest
By adding ‘r’ and ‘st’
POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE
brave braver bravest
fine finer finest
large larger largest
nice nicer nicest
noble nobler noblest
pale paler palest
simple simpler simplest
wise wiser wisest
white whiter whitest
By deleting the final ‘y’ and adding ‘ier’ and ‘iest’
POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE
costly costlier costliest
dry drier driest
easy easier easiest
happy happier happiest
heavy heavier heaviest
lazy lasier lasiest
mercy mercier merciest
wealthy wealthier wealthiest
By doubling the final consonats
POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE
big bigger biggest
dim dimmer dimmest
fat fatter fattest
hot hotter hottest
thin thinner thinnest
By using more and most
POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE
active more active most active
attractive more attractive most attractive
beautiful more beautiful most beautiful
brilliant more brilliant most brilliant
careful more careful most careful
courageous more courageous most courageous
cunning more cunning most cunning
difficult more difficult most difficult
famous more famous most famous
faithful more faithful most faithful
proper more proper most proper
popular more popular most popular
splendid more splendid most splendid
Irregular Comparisons
POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE
bad worse worst
evil worse worst
good better best
ill worse worst
far farther farthest
well better best
late later latest
little less least
much more most
many more most
near nearer nearest
old older oldest
old elder eldest
Comparison between two things.
Positive Comparative
Johnsy is as clever as Rosy Rosy is not clever than Johnsy
Benjamin is atleast as tall as Jane Jane is not taller than Benjamin
Comparative Positive
Lazar is brighter than Stalin Stalin is not so bright as Lazar
Superlative Comparative Positive
Akthar is the richest man in Kanpur Akthar is richer than any other man in Kanpur No other man in Kanpur is so rich as Akthar
Superlative Comparative Positive
London is one of the biggest city in England London is bigger than most other city in England Very few cities in England are so big as London
Superlative Comparative Positive
Sheakespear is the greatest of all dramatists Shakespeare is greater than all other dramatists No other dramatist is so great as Shakespeare
Positive Comparative
Lazar is as strong as Lenin Lenin is not less strong than Lazar
Positive Comparative Superlative
Some boys in our class are at least as intelligent as Benjamin Some boys in our class are not intelligent than Benjamin Benjamin is not the most intelligent boy in our class
1. When we compare two objects, persons, qualities, degrees etc. tha tare some respects equal, we may use the comparion of equality. This is formed by the use of as… adjective / adverb… as eg. Your house is as large as mine. 2. When we compare unquals, we may use the comparative degree of the adjective or adverb with than eg. His new book is more interesting than his earlier books 3. When the comparison is negative, we use so… adjective / adverb… as eg. Your house is not quite so large as mine. 4. In some adverbial clauses of comparison both subject and verb are dropped. eg. He is more shy than (he is) unsocial. Some people think more about their rights than (they do) about their duties. 5. In clauses of comparison introduced by than that ‘should’ is used. eg. I am already to do the work myself rather than that you should have to do it. 6.Comparison and contrast are also expressed by the use of the…the…with comparatives. eg. The sooner you start, the sooner you’ll finish. The more he read, the less he understood.
Superlative Comparative Positive
Iron is the most useful of all metals. Iron is more useful than any other metal. No other metal is so useful as iron.
Superlative Comparative Positive
Tom is the cleverest of all boys in the class. Tom is cleverer than any other boy in the class. No other boy in the class is so clever as Tom.
Superlative Comparative Positive
Rain water is the purest water. Rain water is purer than any other water. No other water is so pure as rain water.
Superlative Comparative Positive
Paris is one of the busiest cities in England. Paris is busier than most other cities in England. Very few cities in England are as busy as Paris.
Positive Comparative Superlative
Very few animals are as fast as cheetah. Cheetah is faster than most other animals. Cheetah is one of the fastest animals.
Superlative Comparative Positive
Food ball is one of the most interesting games. Foot ball is more interesting than most other games. Very few games are as interesting as foot ball.
Comparative Positive
Paris is hotter than England. England is not so hot as Paris.
Positive Comparative
John is as tall as David. David is not taller than John.
Comparative Positive
The Blue Mountain Express runs faster than the Green Express. The Green Express does not run so fast as the Blue Mountain Express.
Degrees of Comparison in English
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Simple, Compound and Complex Sentences Part 2

Simple, Compound and Complex Sentences :Part 2 A clause is a group of words having Subject and Predicate.
  • If you study well, you will pass Subordinate Clause Main Clause
  • Though he is poor, he is generous. Subordinate Clause Main Clause
A Main Clause is a clause that stands alone and gives a complete meaning. A Subordinate Clause must have any one of the following Subordinating Conjuctions : Subordinating Conjuctions : before, after, till, untill, when, where, which, who, whom, why, what, that, since, as, because, if, unless, as if, as though, although, even though, as well as, as soon as, so that, on condition that, provided that etc. Co-ordinating Conjuctions : and, or, but, so, yet, either…or, neither…nor, ner, not only…but also, both…and, still, else. Subordinating Conjuctions : before, after, till, untill, when, where, which, who, whom, why, what, that, since, as, because, if, unless, as if, as though, although, even though, as well as, as soon as, so that, on condition that, provided that etc A phrase is a group of words which has some meaning. But it does not make complete sense by itself. It contains no finite verb. But it may contain an infinitive or a participle. There are three kinds of sentences : simple, complex and compound. Simple, Compound and Complex Sentences
  • A Simple Sentence contains one finite verb (i.e. a verb showing tense, person and number as : he goes; she went). That is to say, a simple sentence has one main clause, e.g. Seeing the wolf, the boy ran away. I’ve met him before.
  • A Compound Sentence has two or more clauses. It may also have one or more subordinate clauses. e.g. The boy saw the wolf and ran away. I ran to the window and looked down into the street.
  • A Complex Sentence has one main clause and one or more subordinate clauses. e.g. When the boy saw the wolf, he ran away. Before we went very far, we found that we had lost our way.

18 Rules :

SIMPLE COMPLEX COMPOUND
After After and afterward
Before Before and before that
About That and about it
Till, untill Till, untill And till then
On When And then
During the period (time) of While and during that period (time)
Incase of / In the event of If provided / provided that / should / were / supposing And such a case / And in such and event
In case of … not Unless Must / else / or / otherwise
The manner of / The way of / The method of How And I know the method
Soon after / Immedicately after / Instantaneously after As soon as / no sooner than And immediately / and afterwards / and at once
For fear of lest And for that fear
The place of where And its place
The reason of / The cause why And + cause
Inspite of / Despite / on account of / not withstanding to Though, Although / Eventhough / not withstanding that But / yet / still / how ever / all the same / never the less
owing to / on account of / due to / because of As, because since / for And so / And therefore
During the whole length of / time of As long as / so long as And / during the length of time
Ever since Ever since And since then
Besides As well as Not only then… but also

Examples :

SIMPLE COMPLEX COMPOUND
Being tired, he went to bed. As he was tired, he went to bed. He was tired. He went to bed.
Having finished his work, he returned home. After he had finished his work, he returned home. He had finished his work. He returned home.
I saw a girl wiht blue eyes. I saw a girl who had blue eyes. I saw a girl. She had blue eyes.
Model-1 : In spite of, despite, not withstanding.Simple Though, althoughComplex. Simple, Compound and Complex Sentences Although it rained a lot, they enjoyed themselves. (Complex) In spite of or Despite the rain, they enjoyed themselves. (Simple)
  • Thomas was a richman yet he led a simple life. (Compound)
  • In spite of his being a richman. Thomas led a simple life. (Simple)
  • Though Thomas was a richman, he led a simple life. (Complex)
Model-2 : on account of, because of, in consequence of, owing to.Simple. As, Since, BecauseComplex.
  • It rained heavily. The school was closed. (Compound)
  • On account of heavy rain, the school was closed. (Simple)
  • As it rained heavily, the school was closed. (Complex)
Model-3 : In case of, in the event of.Simple. If, Unless. – Complex
  • He works hard and he will succeed. (Compound)
  • In the event of his hard work, he will succeed. (Simple)
  • If he works hard, he will succeed. (Complex)
Model-4 : too…to.Simple. So…that…not. – Complex Simple, Compound and Complex Sentenses The food was very hot. We could not eat it. (Compound) The food was so hot that we could not eat it. (Simple) The food was too hot to eat. (Complex)  
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